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Methods of studying historical issues

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JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was born in Switzerland. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it." Piaget (1983) argued that knowledge developed through cognitive structures known as schemas . Schemas are mental representations of the world and how the individual interacts with it. As a child develops, his or her schemas develop as a result of his or her interaction with the world. All children are born with an innate range of schemas, such as a schema for sucking, reaching, and gripping. These are in turn modified as a result of experience; Piaget call

THE THORNDIKE’S THEORY OF CONNECTIONISM

In this article, you will read the major three laws propounded by Thorndike on connectionism. He reveals that the foundation of learning is the association between sense impressions and impulses to action. The implications of the theory are also discussed. BACKGROUND TO THE THEORY Edward Lee Thorndike Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist. Who lived between 1884 and 1949. Thorndike titled his theory “Connectionism”. He derived this theory by using cats, puzzle box and food. According to Thorndike, the fundamental of learning is the association between sense impressions and impulses to action (stimuli and responses). These associations become strengthened, or weakened by the nature and frequency of the stimuli-responses pairings. This means that an organism will repeat the behaviour if it obtains a pleasant or satisfying stimulus after first demonstrating it. He therefore postulated that learning in an organism involves the act of selecting the most appropriate response and

TYPES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING PROCEDURES

Five Operant conditioning procedures are defined by the presentation or removal of a reinforcement or punishment. In this scenario, the term positive is used to imply addition, and negative to denote subtraction of an incentive . The procedures are: 1. Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement ): this occurs when a behaviour (response) of the subject is followed by a stimulus that is rewarding and this increases the frequency of that behaviour. Positive reinforcement usually is favourable events given to the subject after portraying a desirable behaviour. In an experiment involving a rat for instance, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution could be delivered when a rat engages in a target behaviour, such as pressing a lever. Other than food, other forms of positive reinforcement may include praise, rewards, smile and so on. Positive reinforcement essentially targets to increase the likelihood of certain behaviours. 2. Negative reinforcement: A negative reinforce

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