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In classical conditioning, learning takes place through connecting and associating while in Operant conditioning learning occurs through rewards and punishments. An association is made between behaviour and a consequence of that behaviour. However, the social cognitive learning theory, which our focus in this section, has also developed over the years as another theory to explain alternative ways through which learning takes place in a social context.
BACKGROUND OF THE SOCIO-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
The social cognitive theory was developed by Albert
Bandura. Bandura was born in Canada in 1925 on the 4th of December.
He was educated at a small elementary school. Later on upon completion of his
high school, he pursued his desire to understand human nature and received his
bachelor’s degree in clinical psychology from the University of British
Colombia. This achievement was immediately followed by a Ph. D in 1952 from the
University of Iowa. It was at this point that he was influenced by the
behaviourist tradition and learning theory. Other advocates of social learning
theory are Walter Mischel and Julian Rotter. However, the two focused more on
personality.
The social learning theory is an approach advanced in
child development whose major argument is that children develop through
learning from other people around them. It is stated that the social learning
theory emphasises the role of observation and imitation of role models. The
proponents of the theory view social development as a continuous learning
process as opposed to learning in stages.
The theory evolved from behaviourism but now it
includes many ideas of cognitive theories as a result, it is now called social
cognitive learning theory. As advanced by Weiten (2004) Bandura
believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning
hence he added a social element arguing that people could learn new behaviour
and new information by observing others.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
As stated above, observational learning is a type of
learning which occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the
observation of others who are called models, (Weiten, 2004). There are three
basic concepts at the centre of social cognitive learning theory. These include
the fact that
·
People can learn
through observation,
·
Mental states are
important to learning (intrinsic reinforcement) and that
·
Learning does not
necessarily lead to behaviour change.
Bandura departed from behaviourists ideas that
learning leads to a change in behaviour (Bandura, 1977). This theory holds that
people can observe new behaviours without change in behaviour or imitate the
behaviour observed.
Observational learning emphasises the importance of
observing and modelling the behaviours of others. Weiten (2004) defined a model
as a person whose behaviour is observed by another.
Schunk (2009) presents that there are three basic
models in observational learning these include a live model (models that are
present or appear in person), models that are not human beings for example
televised talking animals (on television these would be Garfield, Penguins of
Madagascar, Lion King and Tom and Jerry) and other cartoon characters. The last
model is the symbolic or fictional model which encompasses computers,
videotape, DVD or in print /that is books and magazines.
Bandura (1986) maintains that people's characteristic
patterns of behaviour are shaped by the models they are exposed to. Some models
are more influential than others. For example, people are more likely to
imitate people they like and respect or better put, significant others.
As discussed by Santrock (2006) Bandura demonstrated
observational learning through the Bobo doll experiment. In the experiment, an
equal number of children were randomly picked to watch one of three movies
which showed a person beat up an adult size plastic toy called Bobo doll. In the first group, children
saw the model being rewarded for the aggressive behaviour as such when later on
the children were given to play with the Bobo doll themselves, they too tended
to be more aggressive. The second group of children watched the model being
punished for aggressive behaviour and hence they themselves showed less
aggression towards the doll. The last group of children watched a film where
there were no consequences for the aggressor's behaviour.
In this experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children
learn and imitate the behaviours that they observe in other people. It can
further be stated about the social cognitive learning theory that observing a
model does not guarantee learning or later ability to perform the behaviour.
Rather, models provide information about probable consequences of action and
motivate observers to act accordingly. When the models observed are rewarded or
punished for their behaviour, we the observers ensure that we modify our behaviour
based on what the consequences are.
In addition, the social cognitive learning theory
stresses the point that social factors, individual internal cognitive processes
and obvert behaviour cannot be separated as they are crucial at achieving
meaningful learning. It should be noted here that it is this interaction
between environmental factors and personal factors which is referred to as
reciprocal determinism.
To explain reciprocal determinism, the
following examples will be used:
(a) Environment influences
an individual: a given school
introduces culture (traditional dancing and singing) as an extra curriculum
activity and students as such join groups of their choice.
(b) Behaviour
influences the environment: the
cultural groups become big and successful such that students are even invited
to perform at national level. This achievement in behaviour motivates the
school to expand the programme and include traditional games such as solo
(c) Personal
factors influence behaviour: many students join the cultural groups and view them
as future careers. The example above shows the inter play of environmental
factors, obvert behaviour and personal factors.
CRITICAL STAGES OR BASIC PROCESSES IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
It is stated that in observational learning as in any
other type of learning, there are phases or stages that should be followed. If
the stages are not seriously adhered to, the, desired results may not be
attained. Among the stages listed are: attention,
retention reproduction and motivation. The first two stages highlight the
importance of cognition in this type of learning.
(i) Attention is
the first stage of observational learning. This phase requires that learners
focus all their energies on the model so as not to miss out any detail on what
the model is saying or doing. It is also believed that learners will pay more
attention to models who are attractive and are of high status or those who are
in the circle of significant others.
(ii) Retention stage: This is the second stage, which involves coding of information with a
view to falling back on it or retrieving it in future. This is so because an
individual may not have occasion to use the observed response for weeks, months
or even years. Therefore, an individual must store a mental representation
observed in the memory, (Weiten, 2004). The learner's rate of retention in the
phase of retention can be aided by the use of simple descriptions or vivid
images of the teacher or model. Sequence markers can also be used to facilitate
retention.
(iii)
The
reproduction
stage is the stage where learners will strive to make an attempt and
remember the observed behaviour. This is the phase where the learners may have to
make several attempts until the targeted behaviour has been learnt accurately. Enacting
a modelled response depends on an individual's ability to reproduce the
response by converting the stored mental images into overt behaviour. This
phase can be termed as the trial-adjustment and readjustment stage. It should
be mentioned here that teachers are required to give prompt feedback to enable
the learners to make necessary adjustments.
(iv) Motivation is the last stage of observational learning
process. As stated earlier on, observational learning involves the idea of
seeing what the model is doing and evaluating the consequences of the modelled
action. This actually means the learner has to make the final decision on
whether or not to perform the modelled behaviour. The decisions of which will
be determined by the consequences observed. Thus, learners are more likely to
perform the modelled behaviour if the consequences are positive. On the other
hand, an individual is unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless he/she
is motivated to do so. Therefore, learning does not always lead to change of
behaviour.
Furthermore, reinforcement is very important in the
process of learning. According to the social learning theory, performance or
non-performance of modelled behaviour may also be attributed to the kind of
reinforcement that the learner receives. Three types of reinforcement are
distinguished by the social learning theory:
(1) Direct reinforcement: A learner who models behaviour and is praised or
admired for the same will be said to have experience direct reinforcement.
(2) Vicarious reinforcement that includes vicarious
positive reinforcement and vicarious punishment. Bandura (1977)
defined vicarious reinforcement as a reinforcement that occurs when an
individual imitates the behaviour of someone who has been reinforced for that
behaviour. This can happen through watching, listening to or reading about
other people. For example, a child can be reinforced to work hard in school
after listening to someone who has excelled in education and living a decent
life. Vicarious punishment is a decrease of a probability of
behaviour due to having observed this behaviour leading to negative
consequences, (Bandura 1986). For example, an individual can stop abusing drugs
after watching a person suffering from various health complications due to
smoking or after watching someone (model)being imprisoned because of being
found in possession and abusing drugs.
(3) The third type of reinforcement is self-reinforcement.
In this type of reinforcement, the learner waits for no external approval or
disapproval. The learner bases his decision to either exhibit behaviour o or
not on the inner satisfaction. For example, an individual reward or punish
him/herself for meeting or failing to meet own standards. It is this kind of
reinforcement that Woolfolk (1995) recommends as most desired in learning
because it with stands extinction and usually results in meaningful learning.
Learners who are self-reinforced set their own goals. However, care should be
taken to ensure that the goals set are realistic when this is not done; the
result might lead to either, discouragement or disappointment.
The social learning theory highlights how a variety of
personal factors govern behaviour. In recent years, Bandura has emphasised how self-efficacy
can influence behaviour. Self-efficacy refers to one's belief about one's
ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes (Weiten
2004). Schunk ( 2009) broadens the view that self-efficacy is very important in
learning because it is directly related to effort and task persistence. For
example, learners whose self-efficacy is high are likely to exert effort in the
midst of difficulty and still will show enthusiasm to perform a task when they
have the required skills.
APPRECIATION OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
It is an observable fact that we acquire, maintain and
modify behaviour that we see others perform. The theory helps us to draw the
conclusion that human beings are not passive in learning. This implies that
human beings are rational, organised and self-reflecting beings who are able to
interpret the world around them. This can be seen in their ability to observe
and evaluate consequences.
The social
cognitive theory exposes the autonomy of human beings to choose which
behaviours to imitate in spite of being exposed to various behaviours. The
theory of operant conditioning boarders on the concept that people learn by
doing. However, the social cognitive theory projects a much different view
which is that behavioural consequences as opposed to cementing behaviours work
as sources of information and motivation.
It is because of consequences that people are able to
verify the accurateness or appropriateness of behaviour. It is only natural to
emulate people whose actions have led to success. For example, we choose which
behaviours to keep and when to use them.
Furthermore, the theory lays bare the interplay of
personal factors, environmental factors and behaviour. These are very important
factors in the process of learning.
CLASSROOM APPLICATION OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Vicarious learning is important because it saves
people from personally experiencing negative consequences. For example,
children or pupils and students can learn the dangers of drug abuse by being
addressed by a former drug addict and seeing the after-effects. The learners
will not insist on experiencing it themselves for them to know what it can do.
Furthermore, Munsaka (2011) furthers the view that in order to encourage good performance and get rid of stereotyping, learners should be exposed to good models who will have an impact on their lives. For example, careers departments can invite female pilots, doctors, and engineers to encourage female students. Male chefs can also be invited to encourage male students who may be gifted in cooking.
Since vicarious learning is about
observing and evaluating models, teachers should use themselves as models for
their students. They should always show very good behaviour inside and outside
the classroom. They should further instil a high sense of achievement in their
learners and encourage them to be able to motivate themselves and set realistic
goals.
Observational learning can also be applied by
arranging activities that will enable the learners to have real-life experiences which include field trips and educational tours. In addition,
teachers should ensure that they capture the attention of their learners as
they present their lessons and quick feedback should be given. This will help
the learners to maintain the good performance or improve on their weaknesses.
Lessons should not just be educative but also interesting.
Reinforcement, as stated above is very important. As
such, teachers should ensure that there is consistency in the way they apply
reinforcement. There should be fairness and no favouritism.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the social learning theory, points out that learning takes place in the social context through observation by watching the behaviour of other people. The theory is rooted in many concepts of traditional learning. The recognition of the role of the environment and cognition in learning has provided a bridge between behavioural and cognitive line of thoughts.
Social learning theory has become perhaps one of the most influential
theories of learning and development. It can be seen therefore, how progress in
social learning spills over to enhance trends and values in society. This
clearly demonstrates the enormous power of the environment, personal factors
and behaviour in the process of learning.
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1997)
Self-Efficacy: The exercise of Control, New York: W.H. Freeman
Bandura, A. (1977).
Social Learning Theory, New York: General Learning press.
Bandura, A . (1986).Socialfoundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood cliffs
,NJ: Prentice hall.
Kuppuswamy, B
('2006').Advanced Educational psychology.NewDelhi: Sterling publishers
Munsaka, E. (2011).
Mastering the Psychology of Teaching and Learning. Lusaka: UNZA Press
Santrock, J. (2004)
Educational Psycholog. Bostony: McGraw Hill.
Schunk, D.H. (2009). Learning Theories: An Educational
Perspective. 5th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Weiten, W. (2004). Psychology: Themes and Variations, New York: Thomson
Wadsworth. Woolfolk, A.E. (1995). Educational Psychology.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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