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The expectancy theory of motivation was suggested by Victor Vroom. Unlike Maslow, Vroom does not concentrate on needs as motivational factors, but rather he focuses on outcomes.
This theory
argues that the tendency to behave in a particular way depends on the strength
of an expectation that the behaviour or act will be followed by a given outcome
and the attractiveness or value of that outcome to that person. In short, this
is where someone does something because they expect a certain desired outcome.
Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship
between internal needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfil them,
Vroom's expectancy theory separates effort (which arises from motivation),
performance, and outcomes.
Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behaviour
results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose is to maximise pleasure and to minimise pain. Vroom realised that an
employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality,
skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance
and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the variables
Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.
Expectancy
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to
increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is
affected by such things as:
1.
Having the right
resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)
2.
Having the right
skills to do the job
3.
Having the
necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct
information on the job)
For
instance, one need to study hard in order to pass an examination with good
marks. But this requires the appropriate materials to get right information and
enough time to prepare for exam (resource), they should also be able to study
for quite some time without distraction (Skills) and should be provided with
suitable environment for prep, right materials and time both at home and
school.
Instrumentality
Instrumentality is the belief that if you
perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a
first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good
job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:
1.
Clear
understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g. the
rules of the reward 'game'
2.
Trust in the
people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
3.
Transparency of
the process that decides who gets what outcome
Valence
Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the
expected outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer
attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly
motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.
The three elements are important behind choosing one
element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance
expectancy (E>P expectancy) and performance-outcome expectancy (P>O
expectancy).
E>P expectancy: our assessment of the
probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level.
P>O expectancy: our assessment of the
probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.
Crucially, Vroom's expectancy theory works on perceptions – so even if an employer thinks they have
provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with
most people in that organisation, it does not mean that someone will not
perceive that it does not work for them.
At first glance expectancy theory would seem most
applicable to a traditional-attitude work situation where how motivated the
employee is, depends on whether they want the reward on offer for doing a good job
and whether they believe more effort will lead to that reward.
However, it could equally apply to any situation where
someone does something because they expect a certain outcome. For example, I
recycle paper because I think it is important to conserve resources and take a
stand on environmental issues (valence); I think that the more effort I put
into recycling the more paper I will recycle (expectancy); and I think that the
more paper I recycle then less resources will be used (instrumentality)
Thus, Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not
about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards
expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those
outcomes.
Classroom implication of the Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory predicts that learners in a school
or classroom will be motivated when they believe that:
·
Putting in more
effort will yield better academic performance
·
Better academic
performance will lead to further academic rewards, such as promotion from one
grade to the next, moral appreciation by teacher or even best learner’s awards.
·
These predicted academic
rewards are valued by the learner in question
In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, teachers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Teachers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, teachers should engage in better or advanced practices to improve their learners’ capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance.
(1) They
should make clear to students why a specific outcome is desirable (e.g. getting
an A/A+ at GCSE speaking exams). Make sure you list as many benefits as
possible, especially those that most relevant to their personal preferences,
interests and life goals;
(2) They
should provide them with a clear path to get there. This may involve showing
them a set of strategies they can use (e.g. autonomously seeking opportunities
for practice with native speakers in school) or a clear course
of action they can undertake which is within their grasp (e.g. talk to your
teacher about how to improve your essay writing; identify with their help the
two or three main issues; work out with them some strategies to address those
issues; monitor with their help through regular feedback and meetings with them
that they are working and if they are not why; etc.). A clear path gives a
struggling student a sense of empowerment, especially if they feel that they
are being provided with effective tips and support to overcome the obstacles in
the way;
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