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Most developmental psychologists view language as an
interaction of maturation and experience with maturation playing a central role
in infancy and experience becoming increasingly influential over time. Despite
the fact that stages of language development are closely linked with
maturational stages, cognitive development also plays a crucial role in
language development. Language development is divided into a series of closely
linked stages of development and these stages overlap somewhat, but they form a
convenient framework for studying early vocalization.
(i) Pre-babbling stage also referred to as Pre-Linguistic stage (birth to six months).
Language development in human children begins with the
birth cry and for the first few weeks, their vocal repertoire is extremely
limited largely characterised by cries as the only means of communication. They
will cry to register discomfort. During the first three months, infants lack
sufficient neuro-muscular development to control their vocal apparatus to
provide speech sounds. As contended by Weber, (1991:149), “toward the end of this phase, infants begin to make speech-like sounds
mainly using vowels ‘a’ and ‘e’. These sounds are often referred to
as cooing.” At this stage, there
is no significant language variation across culture. The behaviour in language acquisition across culture is similar.
(ii) Babbling phase (6-12 months)
By six months, infants expand their speech sounds to
include consonants like ‘m’, ‘b’, ‘d’ and ‘p’
The emergence of speech or phonemes is determined to a larger extent by the
infant’s motor abilities. By about eight months, infants begin to combine
sounds and repeat combinations over producing such common babbles as ‘mama’
and ‘dada’.
Initially, all infants produce similar babbles (sounds) but by eight months
onwards, the variety of sounds produced changes to better match the sounds
commonly occurring in the language the infant hears. The period 8-12 months is
characterized by continuing changes in phoneme production and increasingly
word-like babbles. Infants repeat accidentally
sounds and words they have heard (Lallation from about 7 to 8 months).
From 9 to 10 months, repetition is more correct and “deliberate”.
(iii)
First words or single-word utterances (12-18 months)
This period starts with semi-words. Weber (1991:149)
was of the view that, “the first words
children use are idiosyncratic and typically not words heard from other people.
They are invented words, approximations of adult words.” This in itself
demonstrates the creative quality of language production and underscores the
belief that children’s language is just but an imitation of adult language.
As the children progress past the fifteenth month, they learn words at an intermediate level of specificity first, such as, ‘dog’ rather than animal which is more general. They tend to often generalize any four-legged animal to them may be a ‘dog’ or whichever animal they first encountered. Early behaviour in children is thus defined in terms of perceptual features like four legs, white and black, has a tail, big and round and so on. As the children approach the eighteenth month, they develop holophrastic speech.
The words produced at this
stage are holophrastic (Single word-sentences) and used to
convey whole thoughts. The word combined with intonation, gestures, and
context, functions as a sentence would for an adult. Context is therefore very
important in holophrases. For instance, a child who says shirt in
a whining voice while waving arms to show the undressed upper part of the body
means something quite different from a child who mentions the same word, with
same intonation and gestures but is wearing a shirt. Wanting to say for example
“mommy, I am hungry and I want you to
give me milk”, s/he will simply say, “milk”.
(iv)
Early
sentences or Telegraphic speech (18-24 months)
This is the stage of remarkable progress in language
development for children because they begin to produce short sentences of two
to three words. The sentences produced at this stage are highly telegraphic, also called
pivot words and only contain few words
sufficient to express an idea. For example, if they want to say, "Where
is my mother?” they will say: “mom gone”. Function words and grammatical suffixes are
eliminated. The universality in the use of telegraphic speech clearly implies
maturational constraints on children’s language behaviour. At
this point, expansion and frequent repetitions in correct and complete grammatical
form on the part of parents and other caregivers is important for children to
learn language. Research has furnished enough evidence that children exposed to
full adult grammar advance quickly to the next stage of language acquisition
unlike those exposed to baby talk for long.
(v)
Emergence of
Grammar (2-5 years).
By the age of two years, children have a reasonable
vocabulary of between 250 and 300 words. Between 2-5 years, they excel further
and acquire function words and suffixes necessary for grammatical speech. By
this time, the language skills are still less developed and they tend to
over-regularize. They still cannot discriminate between regular and irregular
words and will apply the rules anyhow. For instance, they have heard that to
form past tenses for some words, ‘ed’ is added like in the case of ‘jump
- jumped’ or ‘walk - walked’. For them, they will
do the same for words like ‘eat’ or ‘sleep’. During this
stage especially towards the age of five, they begin to learn the pragmatics of
language, the social rules of communication like listening, not talking at the
same time, taking turns in conversations, politeness and so on.
(vi)
Refinement
of Language (Beyond 5 years).
Children at the age of five are amazingly competent speakers of language. Weber (1991) postulates that, beyond five, most language changes involve increasing vocabulary and mastering the fine points of grammar and syntax, the rules of combining words into meaningful sentences. At this stage, they are able to function with less difficulty and can produce longer sentences with complex grammatical structures and they can also understand passive and embedded sentences.
From five years going forward, the environment; including family,
electronic and print media, school and peers all have a significant bearing and
influence the rate and sophistication of language development. To summarise the
language development process, let us take a look at the table covering the
milestones in the human language development.
APPROXIMATE AGE RANGE |
RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE MILESTONES |
EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE MILESTONES3 |
At birth |
Newborns respond to sound in their environment,
notably by being startled by sudden, loud noises. Newborns can distinguish
their own mother's voice from other female voices and their own mother's
native language from other languages. |
Newborns have a repertoire of expressive sounds that
generally correspond to pleasure or pain. |
Through 3 months |
Child begins to orient his/her face toward speaker;
may quiet down as if to attend to an unfamiliar voice. |
Child begins to smile in recognition of familiar
face; coos and babbles. |
4 through 6 months |
Child begins to understand simple, common words,
such as “no." |
Babbling begins to sound speech-like in intonation
and prosody; child’s speech sounds and gestures can communicate basic wishes. |
7 through 12 months |
Child orients to his/her name, turns to look toward
speaker; enjoys “patty- cake"-type games and demonstrates recognition of
common labels (e.g. “dog," "juice," “bed"). |
Word-initial consonant sounds occur (e.g., /b/ as in
"bed" or /d/ as in "dog”); utterance of first real word (e.g.,
"Mama” or “Dada”). |
12 through 24 months |
Child will look toward or point to named objects and
can follow simple commands, such as “Touch your nose.” |
First two-word utterances (e.g., “Me go." or
"Where car?") occur. |
2 through 3 years |
Child understands and complies with complex
commands, such as "Put the bus on the shelf"; begins to contrast
opposites (e.g., big/little, hot/cold). |
Child uses many more labels for immediate and
familiar objects and events; three- word utterances begin to use adjectives
and adverbs (e.g., “Bus go fast!"). |
Table 1:
Milestones in the typical development of receptive and expressive language
IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION
The importance of language in education cannot be overemphasised. It is through the use of language that effective learning takes
place. Language enhances communication hence teachers should ensure that they
provide an enabling environment through the provision of materials and creation
of situations that would encourage learners to use language. This will help to
identify learners who do not comprehend issues and assist them accordingly. If
spoken language is used, the teacher should ensure that his sentences are well
organized, words are correctly pronounced and the grammar used is acceptable. Simply put, language makes the sharing of knowledge easy
between educators and learners.
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